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Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents beginning 2 million years ago with the out of Africa migration of Homo erectus. This initial migration was followed by other archaic humans including H. heidelbergensis, which lived around 500,000 years ago and was the likely ancestor of both Denisovans and Neanderthals. Within Africa, Homo sapiens dispersed around the time of its speciation, roughly 300,000 years ago. The "recent African origin" paradigm suggests that the anatomically modern humans outside of Africa descend from a population of Homo sapiens migrating from East Africa roughly 70,000 years ago and spreading along the southern coast of Asia and to Oceania before 50,000 years ago. Modern humans spread across Europe about 40,000 years ago. The migrating modern human populations are known to have interbred with local varieties of archaic humans, so that contemporary human populations are descended in small part (below 10% contribution) from regional varieties of archaic humans. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which both living organisms and fossil organisms evolved since life emerged on the planet, until the present. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years (Ga) ago and evidence suggests life emerged prior to 3.7 Ga. Although there is some evidence to suggest that life appeared as early as 4.1 to 4.28 Ga this evidence remains controversial due to the non-biological mechanisms that may have formed these potential signatures of past life. The similarities among all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

Abiogenesis, or informally the origin of life, is the natural process by which life arises from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. The transition from non-living to living entities was not a single event, but a gradual process of increasing complexity.Researchers study abiogenesis through a combination of molecular biology, paleontology, astrobiology and biochemistry, and aim to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life. The study of abiogenesis can be geophysical, chemical, or biological, with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three, as life arose under conditions that are strikingly different from those on Earth today. Life functions through the specialized chemistry of carbon and water and builds largely upon four key families of chemicals: lipids (fatty cell walls), carbohydrates (sugars, cellulose), amino acids (protein metabolism), and nucleic acids (self-replicating DNA and RNA). Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these classes of molecules. Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules, or their components, came into existence. Researchers generally think that current life on Earth descends from an RNA world, although RNA-based life may not have been the first life to have existed.This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

Dinosaurs first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago, although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago; their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. This book briefs its readers on the history, evolution, classification and biology of Dinosaurs. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

Philosophy and Economics studies topics such as rational choice, the appraisal of economic outcomes, institutions and processes, and the ontology of economic phenomena and the possibilities of acquiring knowledge of them.It is useful to divide philosophy of economics in this way into three subject matters which can be regarded respectively as branches of action theory, ethics (or normative social and political philosophy), and philosophy of science.This book is a must read for everyone interested in Economics and its Philosophy.This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

Islam is the second largest religious belief in Europe after Christianity. Islam entered southern Europe through the invading "Moors" of North Africa in the 8th-10th centuries; Muslim political entities existed firmly in what is today Spain, Portugal, South Italy and Malta for several centuries. This book traces the history of how Islam originated in Europe and how is exist today. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India between 1857-58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including India's First War of Independence. A must read for everyone interested in the history of Indian subcontinent. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

This volume contains the history of India from Mughal dynasty till present day. It covers the history of the Mughals, Maratha's, Kingdom of Mysore, Sikh Empire, British East Indian Company and thereafter the British Raj. Pre-independence the book traces India's painful history of four major wars to the Emergency, New Economic Policy and India's fight against corruption. A must read for every student and teacher of History. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

The Middle kingdoms of India were the political entities in India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE. The "Middle" period lasted for about 1500 years and ended in the 13th century, with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate, founded in 1206, and the end of the Later Cholas (Rajendra Chola III, who died in 1279 CE). This book covers the History of Indian Subcontinent from 543 BCE to 16th Century. A must read for every student and teacher of History. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

The middle kingdoms in India lasted from 3rd Century to the 13th Century. The period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE. The "Middle" period lasted for about 1500 years and ended in the 13th century, with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate, founded in 1206, and the end of the Later Cholas (Rajendra Chola III, who died in 1279 CE). This book covers the History of Indian Subcontinent from 322 BCE to 550 BCE. A must read for every student and teacher of History. This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

The Roman army is a term that can in general be applied to the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (to c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500-31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC - 395), and its medieval continuation the Eastern Roman Empire. It is thus a term that may span approximately 2,206 years (753 BC to 1453 AD), during which the Roman armed forces underwent numerous permutations in composition, organisation, equipment and tactics, while conserving a core of lasting traditions. This book gives out the structural, technological and strategical history of the Ancient Roman military from 753BC to 476AD This book is a compilation of high quality articles from the Internet.

A complete guide to understand Afghanistan. This book provides information about the country from its History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Military, Education, Culture etc.

The European Court of Human Rights is a supra-national or international court established by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a contracting state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention and its protocols. This book helps understand the very concept of this Institution and its importance.