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It is a real pleasure to write the Foreword for this book, both because I have known and respected its author for many years and because I expect this book's publication will mark an important milestone in the continuing worldwide development of microsystems. By bringing together all aspects of microsystem design, it can be expected to facilitate the training of not only a new generation of engineers, but perhaps a whole new type of engineer - one capable of addressing the complex range of problems involved in reducing entire systems to the micro- and nano-domains. This book breaks down disciplinary barriers to set the stage for systems we do not even dream of today. Microsystems have a long history, dating back to the earliest days of mic- electronics. While integrated circuits developed in the early 1960s, a number of laboratories worked to use the same technology base to form integrated sensors. The idea was to reduce cost and perhaps put the sensors and circuits together on the same chip. By the late-60s, integrated MOS-photodiode arrays had been developed for visible imaging, and silicon etching was being used to create thin diaphragms that could convert pressure into an electrical signal. By 1970, selective anisotropic etching was being used for diaphragm formation, retaining a thick silicon rim to absorb package-induced stresses. Impurity- and electrochemically-based etch-stops soon emerged, and "e;bulk micromachining"e; came into its own.

IFIP Working Group 5.2 has organized a series of workshops extending the concept of intelligent CAD to the concept of "e;knowledge intensive engineering"e;. The concept advocates that intensive life-cycle knowledge regarding products and design processes must be incorporated in the center of the CAD architecture. It focuses on the systematization and sharing of knowledge across the life-cycle stages and organizational boundaries. From Knowledge Intensive CAD to Knowledge Intensive Engineering comprises the Proceedings of the Fourth Workshop on Knowledge Intensive CAD, which was sponsored by the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) and held in Parma, Italy in May 2000. This workshop looked at the evolution of knowledge intensive design for the product life cycle moving towards knowledge intensive engineering. The 18 selected papers present an overview of the state-of-the-art in knowledge intensive engineering, discussing theoretical aspects and also practical systems and experiences gained in this area. An invited speaker paper is also included, discussing the role of knowledge in product and process innovation and technology for processing semantic knowledge. Main issues discussed in the book are: Architectures for knowledge intensive CAD; Tools for knowledge intensive CAD; Methodologies for knowledge intensive CAD; Implementation of knowledge intensive CAD; Applications of knowledge intensive CAD; Evolution of knowledge intensive design for the life-cycle; Formal methods. The volume is essential reading for researchers, graduate and postgraduate students, systems developers of advanced computer-aided design and manufacturing systems, and engineers involved in industrial applications.

In the last decade, since the publication of the first edition of Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, there has been a great expansion in the capabilities of the basic SEM and EPMA. High- resolution imaging has been developed with the aid of an extensive range of field emission gun (FEG) microscopes. The magnification ranges of these instruments now overlap those of the transmission electron microscope. Low-voltage microscopy using the FEG now allows for the observation of noncoated samples. In addition, advances in the develop- ment of x-ray wavelength and energy dispersive spectrometers allow for the measurement of low-energy x-rays, particularly from the light elements (B, C, N, 0). In the area of x-ray microanalysis, great advances have been made, particularly with the "e;phi rho z"e; [Ij)(pz)] technique for solid samples, and with other quantitation methods for thin films, particles, rough surfaces, and the light elements. In addition, x-ray imaging has advanced from the conventional technique of "e;dot mapping"e; to the method of quantitative compositional imaging. Beyond this, new software has allowed the development of much more meaningful displays for both imaging and quantitative analysis results and the capability for integrating the data to obtain specific information such as precipitate size, chemical analysis in designated areas or along specific directions, and local chemical inhomogeneities.

The studies presented in this special issue of VIRUS GENES provide information on the two aspects of virus evolution: the ancient evolution of viruses from the time prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells evolved, and the ongoing process of the current molecular evolution of viruses. The studies of many scientists collected in this issue and many more that were published in other scientific journals provide insight into the molecular evolution of viruses as one of nature's mysteries. The use of computer porograms to study the nucleotide sequences of viral genomes, the amino acid compositions of proteins coded by viral genomes, and searches for regulatory mechanisms in viral nucleic acid replication, as well as identities of motifs in proteins of viruses from all families, will provide additional information on the subject. In future issues that will be devoted to this subject, the origin and evolution of RNA and DNA viruses will be further investigated.

It. is well known that t.he introduction of a new technology in one organization not always produces the intended benefits (Levine, 1994). In many cases, either the receivers do not reach the intended level of use or simply the technology is rejected because it does not match with the expectations (true or false) and the accepted psychological effort to use it. The case of formal methods is a paradigmatic example of continual failures. The published cases with problems or failures only constitute the visible part of a large iceberg of adoption cases. It. is difficult to get companies to openly express the problems they had; however, from the experience of the author, failure cases are very common and they include any type of company. Many reasons to explain the failures (and in some cases the successes) could be postulated; however, the experiences are not structured enough and it is difficult to extract from them useful guidelines for avoiding future problems. Generally speaking, there is a trend to find the root of the problems in the technol- ogy itself and in its adequacy with the preexistent technological context. Technocratic technology transfer models describe the problems in terms of these aspects. Although it is true that those factors limit the probability of success, there is another source of explanations linked to the individuals and working teams and how they perceive the technology.

Multiple processor systems are an important class of parallel systems. Over the years, several architectures have been proposed to build such systems to satisfy the requirements of high performance computing. These architectures span a wide variety of system types. At the low end of the spectrum, we can build a small, shared-memory parallel system with tens of processors. These systems typically use a bus to interconnect the processors and memory. Such systems, for example, are becoming commonplace in high-performance graph- ics workstations. These systems are called uniform memory access (UMA) multiprocessors because they provide uniform access of memory to all pro- cessors. These systems provide a single address space, which is preferred by programmers. This architecture, however, cannot be extended even to medium systems with hundreds of processors due to bus bandwidth limitations. To scale systems to medium range i. e. , to hundreds of processors, non-bus interconnection networks have been proposed. These systems, for example, use a multistage dynamic interconnection network. Such systems also provide global, shared memory like the UMA systems. However, they introduce local and remote memories, which lead to non-uniform memory access (NUMA) architecture. Distributed-memory architecture is used for systems with thousands of pro- cessors. These systems differ from the shared-memory architectures in that there is no globally accessible shared memory. Instead, they use message pass- ing to facilitate communication among the processors. As a result, they do not provide single address space.

7. 2 Element Stiffness Matrix of a Space Truss Local Coordinates 221 7. 3 Transformation of the Element Stiffness Matrix 223 7. 4 Element Axial Force 224 7. 5 Assemblage ofthe System Stiffness Matrix 225 7. 6 Problems 236 8 STATIC CONDENSATION AND SUBSTRUCTURING 8. 1 Introduction 239 8. 2 Static Condensation 239 8. 3 Substructuring 244 8. 4 Problems 259 9 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT MEmOD 9. 1 Introduction 261 9. 2 Plane Elasticity Problems 262 9. 3 Plate Bending 285 9. 4 Rectangular Finite Element for Plate Bending 285 9. 5 Problems 298 APPENDIX I Equivalent Nodal Forces 301 APPENDIXll Displacement Functions for Fixed-End Beams 305 GLOSSARY 309 SELECTED BmLIOGRAPHY 317 INDEX 319 ix Preface This is the first volume of a series of integrated textbooks for the analysis and design of structures. The series is projected to include a first volume in Matrix Structural Analysis to be followed by volumes in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering as well as other volumes dealing with specialized or advanced topics in the analysis and design of structures. An important objective in the preparation of these volumes is to integrate and unify the presentation using common notation, symbols and general format. Furthermore, all of these volumes will be using the same structural computer program, SAP2000, developed and maintained by Computers and Structures, Inc. , Berkeley, California.

Communication protocols are rules whereby meaningful communication can be exchanged between different communicating entities. In general, they are complex and difficult to design and implement. Specifications of communication protocols written in a natural language (e.g. English) can be unclear or ambiguous, and may be subject to different interpretations. As a result, independent implementations of the same protocol may be incompatible. In addition, the complexity of protocols make them very hard to analyze in an informal way. There is, therefore, a need for precise and unambiguous specification using some formal languages. Many protocol implementations used in the field have almost suffered from failures, such as deadlocks. When the conditions in which the protocols work correctly have been changed, there has been no general method available for determining how they will work under the new conditions. It is necessary for protocol designers to have techniques and tools to detect errors in the early phase of design, because the later in the process that a fault is discovered, the greater the cost of rectifying it. Protocol verification is a process of checking whether the interactions of protocol entities, according to the protocol specification, do indeed satisfy certain properties or conditions which may be either general (e.g., absence of deadlock) or specific to the particular protocol system directly derived from the specification. In the 80s, an ISO (International Organization for Standardization) working group began a programme of work to develop formal languages which were suitable for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). This group called such languages Formal Description Techniques (FDTs). Some of the objectives of ISO in developing FDTs were: enabling unambiguous, clear and precise descriptions of OSI protocol standards to be written, and allowing such specifications to be verified for correctness. There are two FDTs standardized by ISO: LOTOS and Estelle. Communication Protocol Specification and Verification is written to address the two issues discussed above: the needs to specify a protocol using an FDT and to verify its correctness in order to uncover specification errors in the early stage of a protocol development process. The readership primarily consists of advanced undergraduate students, postgraduate students, communication software developers, telecommunication engineers, EDP managers, researchers and software engineers. It is intended as an advanced undergraduate or postgraduate textbook, and a reference for communication protocol professionals.

During the last two decades, chemical and cellular studies have contributed enormously to our understanding of metal-induced carcinogenesis, and many hypotheses on the role of metals in pathophysiological processes have been investigated. In addition, new techniques are available to shed light on the mechanism of carcinogenesis in molecular terms. This conference on Molecular Mechanisms of Metal Toxicity and Carcinogenesis in September 2000 focused on the latest research in molecular mechanisms of metal-induced toxicity and carcinogenesis. The conference promoted a multidisciplinary investigative approach and included presentations from international experts on state-of-the-art information in this field.